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CONKI'UllCDON 


in.  n,  'iHKiii'.ii^^ 


MILL  BUILDING 

CONSTRUCTION 


BY 


H.    G     TYRRELL.    C.  E. 

Bridge  and  Structural  Engineer 


NEW  YORK 

THE  ENGINEERING  NEWS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

1901 


h-f^.jiT^H\ 


Copyright.  1901.  by 
THE  ENQINEEUINO  NEWS  PUBU8HINO  COMPANY 


TABLE  ( )F  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


LoacL:  Roof  Loads — I-loor  Loads — C  .iie  Loads — Snow  ar^ 
Wind  Loads— Miscellaneous  Loads— Summary  of  Loads— Meth- 
ods of  Calculation. 


CHAPTER  n. 

General  Desifni :  Genera!  Considerations— Walls— Roof  Trusses 
—Spacing    of    Trusses— Jack    Rafters— Roof    Coverings— Truss 

Connections— Rafters — Bottom  Chords— Purlins — Unit  Stresses 

Lighting  and  Ventilation— Estimating  the  Cost. 


CHAPTER  lU. 

Design  of  Structii  ai  Details:     Foundations  and  Anchorages. 

Ground  Floor   'instruction:     Concrete  Floors-        -halt  Floors 

Wood  Floor  —Floors  or  T-  heds.  Upper  Tloor  Construc- 
tion: Stcii  Trough  1  ioors-  rrugated  Iron  and  Brick  Arch 
Floors— Steel  Girder  and  Timber   Floor  —Slow   Burning  Wood 


Floors.    Roof  Coverings:  Gt 
— Asphalt  Roofing — Slag  ai: 
Roofing— Sheet    Steel    Rooh 
Roofing — Tin  and  Terne  Plate  . 
Rubber  Roofing — Asbestos    Ro 
Compantive  Costs  of  Roofing.    ?. 
Wall  Anciiorages  of  Roof  Trusses— 
tion — Gutters  and  Down  Spouts. 


Cuiisi     raiions — Slate  Roofing 

iioofing— Corrugated  Iron 

Hi  iped    Rooting — Steel    R< 

ing — Metal  Shingle  Roofinf: 

' — Wood    Shingle    Roofing — 

ellanpous  Structural  Details: 

ors  a' d  Windows — Ventila- 


iH963 


CHAPTER  i. 


LOADS. 

Mill  biiililings  diflfcr  so  greatly  in  character  and  purpose  that  it 
is  impossible  to  formulate  tables  of  dead  weights  which  will  suit  all 
cases.  The  use  to  which  the  building  is  to  be  put,  its  location,  the 
character  of  ihe  roof  covi-ring,  the  presence  or  absence  of  cranes, 
etc.,  ail  aflfect  the  dead  weight,  and  generally  each  case  must  be  con- 
sidered indiviilually.  For  most  purposes  of  design  the  loads  may 
-  divided  into:  (i)  roof  loads;  (2)  floor  loads;  (3)  crane  loads; 
(4)  snow  and  wind  loads,  and  (5)  miscellaneous  loads 

ROOF  LOADS.— For  making  rough  estimates  the  diagram  of 
weights  of  roof  trusses  given  in  Fig.  i  will  prove  useful.  hese 
weights  have  been  figured  separately  nd  do  not  quite  agree  with 
any  of  the  published  formulas.  From  this  diagram,  the  table  (Ta  le 
1.)  giving  the  weights  of  roof  coverings  and  the  table  (Table  IIL) 
of  wind  and  snow  loads,  the  total  weight  to  be  carried  is  found. 
Were  it  possible  to  realize  in  actual  practice  the  small  sections  re- 
quired, the  weight  •  .  trusses  would  be  directly  proportional  to  the 
lord  carried.  Iron  purlins  weigh  from  2  lbs.  to  4  lbs.  per  square 
foot  of  ground  covered,  according  to  the  spacing  of  the  trusses. 
Good  practice  in  the  United  States  requires  that  roofs  in  northern 
latitudes  shall  be  figured  for  at  least  40  lbs.  per  square  foot  of  roof 
surface. 

FLOOR  LOADS.— The  Building  Law  of  New  York  City  re- 
quires that  floors  shall  be  proportioned  to  carry  the  following  min- 
imum loads  per  square  foot:  Office  buildings,  100  lbs.;  public 
halls.  120  lbs.;  stores,  factories,  warehouses,  etc.,  150  lbs!;  rioors 
carrying  heavy  machinery,  250  lbs.  to  ^  j  lbs.  In  every  case  the 
floor  must  bo  strong  enough  to  carry  its  maximum  load.  Mr.  C. 
J.  H.  Woodbury,  in  his  book  on  "Yh.  l-ire  Protection  of  Mills," 
gives  a  table  of  weights  per  square  ;..u  of  fl  or  of  vai  s  kinds 
of  merchandise,  which  is  reprinted  herewith  1  .  able  I.)  and  which 
will  be  found  v-J'-.oble  in  determining  loads  on  floors 

CRANE  LOADS.— For  small  traveling  cranes  of  one  or  two 
tons  capacity  it  is  safe  to  consider  the  total  weight  of  one  end  of  the 
crane  and  its  load  as  twice  the  capacity  of  the  crane.    For  cranes 


TWO 


»         *»  »         »  TO  flD  WW 

wtlght  of  Boof  -rvv.*^  pw  w^  ♦.  of  Ami   Covered. 


4  MILL     BUILDLVG     CONSTRUCTION. 

ci!n?on  nfn"''"  ^'"^"•  ^'^'^  ''''  "^^•^'-"^  ^'^^t  which  will 
come  on  two  carrying:  wheels  at  one  end  of  the  crane  wlien  the 
uly   oaded  trolley  is  at  that  end.    The  corresponding  CZ    o 

aLtt^t^'iir"'^' '' ''"'''''''  --'-'  ^- "-  --i>'  -  - 

the  construction 
of  the  building. 
From  the  fig- 
ures in  Table  II. 
the  strength  of 
traveling  crane 
runway  girders 
and  c  olu  m  n  s 
may  be  calcu- 
lated. 

The     strains 
due  to  the  pres- 
e  n  c  e    of    jib 
cranes   vary   so 
greatly  in  num- 
b  e  r,    character 
and  intensity  in 
different    cases, 
that  they  do  not 
admit    of    any 
general    tabular 
statement.  They 
must,    however, 
be  carefully  fig- 
ured   in    each 
case    and    fully 
provided   for  in 
the  design.  The 
principal  strains 
produced  will  be 
in    the    lower 
chord  bracing  of 
the    roof   trusses, 
columns. 


— *  vv  60  10 

Total    WVigM-  of   Roof  Thia«»» 
capacity  40  Ibe,  ptr  sq.  ♦,     Untt»  E^XX^  BW.  RtCh6"|«-#. 

Fig-  1.     Diagrams  Showing  Weights  of  Roof  Trusses. 


and    the    bending    strains    in    the 


supporting 


SXOW  AND  WIND  LOADS.-The  pressure  exerted  bv  wind 
on  roofs  ,s  .n  every  case  normal  to  the  plane  of  the  roof  surface 


LOADS.  - 

The  amount  of  wind  pressure  usually  assumed  in  proportioning 
framed  structures  is  30  lbs.  per  square  foot  on  a  vertical  surface, 
which  corresponds  to  a  velocity  of  from  70  to  80  miles  per  hour. 
This  velocity  includes  all  storms  except  tornadoes,  which  cannot  be 
provided  fur.  Table  III.  gives  the  normal  pressures  on  roof  sur- 
faces of  different  slopes  for  a  pressure  of  30  lbs.  per  square  foot 
on  a  vertical  surface. 

Snow  loads  of  from  10  lbs.  to  20  lbs.  per  square  foot  of  horizontal 
projection  uf  the  roof  should  be  provided  for.  There  are  records 
of  snow  and  ice  deposits  weighing  40  lbs.  per  square  foot  having 
lormed  on  roofs  in  northern  latitudes,  but  this  is  a  verv  exceptional 
occurrence.  When  the  roof  has  a  pitch  of  45°  or  more,  snow  load 
need  not  be  considered.  In  Xew  England  latitudes,  for  roofs  of 
ordinary  pitch,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  assume  30  lbs.  per  square  foot 
of  roof  surface  for  snow  and  wind  loads  combined.  The  maximum 
strains  from  wind  and  jib  crane  loads  will  so  seldom  occur  together 
in  the  horizontal  bracing  that  a  combination  need  not  be  provided 
for.  If  they  should  occur  at  the  same  time,  once  in  a  year  or  so, 
the  factor  of  safety  will  enable  the  metal  to  withstand  the  strain 
without  injury. 

The  overturning  efifect  of  wind  acting  on  the  building  as  a  whole 
and  tending  to  revolve  it  about  the  bases  of  the  leeward  columns 
need  be  considered  only  in  the  case  of  tall  narrow  buildings.  Wind 
acting  on  the  sides  of  a  building  will  necessitate  the  u^e  of  knee 
braces  running  from  the  columns  to  the  bottom  chords  of  the  roof 
trusses,  and  the  strains  in  these  braces  will  be  considerable.  These 
strains  will  produce  bending  strains  in  the  columns  which  must  be 
provided  for. 

MISCELLANEOUS  LOAnS.— In  special  cases  there  will  be 
other  loads  to  provide  for  besides  the  more  common  roof,  floor, 
crane,  snow  and  wind  loads  just  considered.  The  bottom 
chords  of  roof  trusses  are  frequently  employed  to  carry  shafting, 
steam  pipes,  trolleys,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  convenient  also  to  have 
the  roof  trusses  sufficiently  strong  to  permit  of  a  block  and  tackle 
being  attached  at  any  point  to  handle  goods.  The  roof  may  re- 
quire a  ventilator  and  when  it  docs  this  extra  weight  must  be  added 
to  the  roof  loads.  Columns  in  exposed  places  where  they  are  liable 
to  shocks  from  vehicles  or  merchandise  should  be  made  stronger 
than  those  built  into  brick  walls. 

SUMMARY  OF  LOADS.— The  total  roof  loads  per  square 


.at  I  ir.Tv^ 


6  MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 

foot  of  roof,  including  weights  of  trusses  for  spans  under  75  ft    is 
about  as  follows  for  different  constructions  of  roofing: 

style  of  ConatrucUon.  ,  v. 

r,  ■  ^'"-  per  »Q-  ft. 

Corru^'ed  Iron,  unbearded „ 

"      on  boards ". ,', 

iSlate  on  laths H 

^"      "    1'4-ln.    boards.'.'.".'!!.'.'.' ]^. 

Tar  and  gravel J'> 

Shingles  on  laths .'.'.'. J- 

Tile 10 

20-30 

When  any  of  these  roofs  are  plastered  below  the  rafters  10  lbs 
per  square  foot  should  be  added  to  the  loads  given.     For  soans 

ZTT  ')r  ^^-\  '  ""^'*  °'  '  ''''■  P"  ^^--  ^-t  should  be 
added  to  the  weights  given.  For  snow  and  wind  loads  combined 
add  for  northern  latitudes  30  lbs.  per  square  foot  to  the  loads  given 
The  weight  of  steel  in  the  sides  and  roofs  of  mill  buildings,  with- 
out cranes,  is  from  4  lbs.  to  6  lbs.  per  square  foot  of  exposed  sur- 
t'u!  rim  °'''^-   ,^°'-'-"^^t^d  iron  sheathing  weighs  from 

I  lb  to  2  lbs.  per  square  foot.  These  weights,  with  steel  at  ■;  cts 
per  lb.,  make  the  cost  of  steel  buildings  from  25  cts.  to  40  cts  per 
square  foot  of  exposed  surface.  A  rough  approximate  rule  for 
calculating  the  extra  weight  of  steel  required  in  columns  and  girders 
when  traveling  cranes  are  used  is  as  follows :  Add  100  lbs.  of  steel 
per  hneal  foot  of  building  for  every  five  tons  of  crane  capacity. 
This  would  give  for  a  5-ton  crane  an  addition  of  100  lbs.  per  lineal 
foot  and  for  a  20-ton  crane  an  addition  of  400  lbs.  per  lineal  foot. 

METHOPS  OF  CALCULATION.-Method.s  of  calculation 
will  not  be  touched  upon  in  this  book,  since  they  mav  be  found  in 
any  text-booK  upon  the  subject.  Briefly  enumerated,  the  cases  to  be 
considered  in  determining  strains  are  the  following: 

(I)  Strains  in  roof  trusses  and  columns  from  permanent  dead 
loads. 

{2)  Roof  trusses  on  walls,  strains  from  wind  normal  to  the  sur- 
face. 

(3)  Wind  on  side  of  building  and  roof,  strains  in  trusses,  columns 
and  knee  braces ;  (a)  columns  hinged  at  the  base  ;  (b)  columns  fixed 
at  the  base. 

Partial  loading  can  never  cause  maximum  srains  in  the  parts  of 
a  Fink  truss  as  they  may  in  other  forms  of  roof  trusses. 


LOADS. 


TABLE   I.-Showlng  Weights  of  Merchandise  as  Given  by  C.  J.  H.  Woodbury  in 
his  Boole  on  "Fire  Protection  of  Mills." 

Wool  in  bale. 1^'°  $? '^  ""' ""•  •"■ 

Woolen  goods oftJSlo 

Baled  cotton Tii.^2i 

Cotton  goods |^J°»^ 

Rags  in  bales ,■••"•,:, l^tn^ 

Strawboard,  newspaper  and  manilla ^ttK 

Calendered  and  super-calendered  book ^1   t^ 

Writing  and  wrapping  paper .ik .    ja 

Wheat "SI  

Flour "*" 

Corn 

Corn  meal 

Oats 

Baled  hay ia  *«  (jn  •• 

Compressed  hay  and  straw Vi  " 

Bleaching  powder |*.^ 

Soda   ash 

Indigo 

Cutch 

Sumac 

Caustic  soda 

Starch 

Alum 

iSxtract  logwood 

Lime .„ 

Cement,   American ii«* 

Cement,  English '^ 

Piaster ^| 

'.'..'..".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'■'■'■■■■Si 

■    ■■■  43 

278 

(K) 

40 

■bai^s:.::: ]«t°23 

■■";;  [[['.['.wi.'.'.i^'.  TO 


31 
37 
27 
57 


<i2 
43 
45 
39 
88 
23 
33 
70 
50 


Rosin .... 
Lard  oil. 
Rope. . . . 

Tin 

Glass. . .  . 
Crockery . 
Leather  in 
Sugar . . 
Cheese. 


TABLE  II.— Showing  Maximum  Weight    in    Poun  r^    ^'-.ich   Will    Come    on    End 
Wheels  of  Traveling  Crane  When  the  Fully-Loaded  Trolley  is  at  the  Same 


End. 

Capacity,    i 

in  tons.        25 


o.  . 
10.. 
20. 
SO.. 
50.. 


. ..  31,700 
. .  .  45,100 
. .  .  72,100 
...103.800 
...152,300 


30 

32,870 

40,000 

74,100 

108.200 

158,100 


35 

3S.800 

47,400 

75,800 

110,000 

1(12,200 


-4pan  of  crane  in  f  eet.- 


40 

34,900 

48,900 

77,«00 

112,000 

107,500 


45 

35,900 

50,200 

79,400 

115,200 

171,000 


50 

37,200 

51,600 

82,000 

117,700 

175,600 


55 

38,000 

53,200 

83,900 

120,400 

178,000 


fiO 
40,300 
55,700 

80,100 
122,800 
182,400 


TABLE  III.— Giving  the  Normal  Pressures  from  Wind  on  Roofs  of  Different 
Slopes  for  a  Wind  Pressure  of  30  lbs.  per  Square  Foot  Against  a  Vertical 
Plane. 


Angle. 

.5 

10 

15 

20 


Pressure. 

3.9 

7.2 

10.5 

13.7 


Angle. 
25 
30 
35 
40 


Pressure. 
16.9 
19.9 
22.G 
25.1 


Angle. 
45 
50 
55 
60 


Pressure. 
27.1 
28.6 
29.7 
30.0 


'mmmmamsw^Femfm^'^smrmmF^mmmm* 


CHAPTER  II. 
GENERAL  DESIGX. 

ures.    A  b„ikli„t    ^  ^  '      cimrac.er  o[  ,ts  general  structural  (eat- 

l-eavy  or  a  %1„  co,„trt,ction.     «■  '  tet.tn    arSc.sT"  ^ 
»e  are  ,„  p„si,i„„  ,„  eonsider  the  question,  ofge^al  S^n      "" 

e.H™  «tg°^::?e't!?f  "°'T-"'  '"'""•™"»" "- «-  °' 

.c-  locate  first"t,;e":,racl  ,    ';Y:':r.     "e7ar«r''r-  "  ''  "■'" 
products  at  the  minimum  cist  an  I  , ft      "'"'"""Se  to  turn  out 

;;«  =n<,  Shape  o,  the  buiWin'rrs^f,     rmacte'rV'^tr  '" 

the  amount  of  oToiinfl  I'c  i,-r„;f„^   »u-  '""-'"nen.    it,  iiowtver, 

rearrange  aud'ri'.tllTn  eSrpi:  e?:.":,,::'""''  ""''  """ 
■ns  bracing  wl,.-e  it  „,av  be  totm/ nece'ssarv  1,7  ""  ""''■ 
"bole  construction  should  be  one  ^the  pSal  e'l  T?  '"  "" 
more  steel  buildings  throughout  the  coumr"  „'ot  '   ^  „I^^"''  '" 

sri',°  'e":*t:"  ,"r'"~"  ■■""  ""'-<- '--  am  -  "  :„:: 

«ir„v  the  frame   "el  'but  tie  "'","  "'■""'■  "»'  °"'>'  '•'  <l^- 

cause  shaftingto"le,o«'ni'r"'f'"  ,?'"'•  "  '""  '"""'  ■'»■' 
run  untrue,    f,  s  41^,1?.  .^     f"<'.'™r'l'"K  "anes  to  bind  an.l 

.o  plan  lor  lul  "re^eiron' a^  r  Ir  rtl^I-'Ssi""^'"^ 

well  he  niarie  for  thi<;  hv  ..i^  -;  ,  ^  revision  can 

ling  i„  .empo'r'pos  s' ;  ;s "  ht":;-;::  Tr'-  t'  "-'- 

support  the  end  purlins,    ^ben  JtefSLI        str/  V  tn" 


'^''iit^ 


A 


GENERAL  DESIGN. 


WALLS. — The  wall  construction  most  commonly  employed  in 
mill  buildings  is :  Solid  brick  walls ;  iron  columns  wi*h  brick  cur- 
tain walls,  or  iron  columns  and  purlins  covered  witb  corrugated 
iron.  Concrete  filling  between  steel  columns  has  occasionally  been 
employed  for  side  walls,  but  it  is  somewhat  more  expensive  than 
brick  filling  on  account  of  the  temporary  timber-work  required  to 
keep  it  in  place  while  hardening  and  also  because  a  light  permanent 
iron  frame  is  necessary  to  hold  the  windows  in  position.  Of  the 
forms  of  construction  ii-:med,  corrugated  iron  is  the  cheapest  and 
most  easily  renewed,  but  it  cannot  be  used  for  buildings  which  are 
to  be  heated.  Machine  shops,  electric  light  stations,  and  s'.milar 
buildings  must  have  solid  walls,  and  if  the  height  is  not  great  or 
if  the  loads  are  not  excessive,  brick  walls  will  be  the  cheapest  con- 
struction. Brick  walls  make  a  rigid  construction  suited  to  with- 
stand the  action  of  cranes  and  heavy  machinery.  In  case  the  walls 
are  required  to  be  very  thick  under  trr^ses,  the  most  economical 
construction  will  be  iron  columns  with  curtain  walls.  This  con- 
struction is  usually  less  rigid  than  solid  brick  walls,  a'ul  it  is  con- 
seciuen'lv  not  so  serviceable  for  buildings  having  heavy  traveling 
cranes.  In  special  cases,  where  sand  and  gravel  are  plentiful,  and 
where  bricks  are  expensive,  a  concrete  filling  between  the  wall  col- 
umns is  less  expensive  than  brick,  and  is  in  every  way  just 
as  serviceable.  Where  columns  with  curtain  walls  are  em- 
ployed, the  tops  of  the  columns  should  be  connected  by 
steel  struts  to  keep  them  in  position.  Columns  with  brac- 
ing between  them  in  a  vertical  plane  make  as  stiff  a  con- 
struction as  can  be  secured,  and  consequently  are  well 
suited  for  heavy  cranes  and  machinery. 

The  form  and  section  of  column  employed  varies  greatly.  For 
light  loads  four  angles  latticed  together,  as  shown  by  Fig.  2,  is 
a  construction  frecjuently  used,  and  the  column  must  be  given  suffi- 
cient width  to  take  the  bending  strains  from  the  knee  braces.  If 
brick-work  is  to  be  built  into  the  columns,  their  width  must  be 
made  to  suit  the  size  of  the  brick.  It  may  sometimes  be  desirable 
to  ■>  one  or  more  large  bays  or  wide  panels  in  the  walls,  in  which 
ca  le  ends  of  the  roof  trusses  coming  over  these  bays  must  be 
supported  on  side  or  wall  girders  attached  to  the  columns  on  each 
side  of  the  bay. 


I 


Fig.  2. 


ROOF  TRUSSES. — The  Fink  truss  is  the  type  most  commonly 
used  in  the  United  States  for  the  roofs  of  small  buildings.  It  is 
economical  because  most  of  its  members  arc  in  tension  and  the 


10 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


Fig.6. 


Fig.8. 


Figs.    3    to    8.    Diagrams    of    Common 
Forifis  of  Roof  Trusses. 


Struts  are  short.    Fig.  3  is  the  form  of  Fink  truss  commonly  used 

for  spans  of  from  30  ft.  to  40  ft. ;  Fig.  4,  the  form  used  for  spans  of 

from  40  ft.  to  55  ft. ;  Fig.  5,  the  form  used  for  spans  of  from  55  ft. 

lO  85  ft. ;  and  Fig.  6,  the  forms  used  for  spans  of 

from  85  ft.  to  100  ft.    If  the  slope  of  the  roof  is 

small,  some  form  of  English  truss  will  be  prefer- 

"■^j-^w^  ^-^    able  fn  the  Fink  truss,  because 

.^y'\/\7  ^-^f^/    /       '^    gives    better    intersection 

angles.  If  the  roof  is  hipped  it 
is  necessary  to  have  vertical 
members  to  which  to  fasten 
the  hip  rafters.  Figs.  7  and  8, 
respectively,  show  a  Queen 
truss  and  a  Fink  truss  of  th; 
same  span  and  pitch,  and  both 
with  vertical  posts.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  longest  ver- 
tical strut  in  the  Queen  truss  is  avoided  in  the  Fink  truss. 

For  small  spans  -p  to  say  30  ft.,  sheets  of  corrugated  iron  may 
be  curved  and  provided  with  a  single  tie-rod  across  the  bottom  to 
form  an  arched  roof.  This  construction  can  often  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage for  ventilator  roofs. 

The  allowable  slope  or  pitch  of  loofs  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
covering  or  roofing  employed.  The  allowable  slopes  for  some  of 
the  more  common  roof  coverings  are  shown  in  T  Liie  IV.  It  is 
more  economical  to  employ  horizontal  bottom  chords  for  roof 
trusses,  or  at  least  to  keep  the  cumber  down  to  an  inch  or  two, 
since  it  avoids  any  bending  of  the  bottom  chord  laterals.  A  truss 
whose  bottom  chord  has  a  rise  of  two  or  three  feet,  however,  pre- 
sents a  better  appearance.  The  neutral  axes  of  all  chord  members 
should  intersect  in  a  common  point  at  each  intersection.  Flat  iron 
should  not  be  used  in  roof  trusses,  except  for  connection  plates,  as 
it  lacks  the  necessary  stiffness.  Steel  is  a  superior  material  to  tim- 
ber for  roof  trusses,  because  it  is  lighter,  stronger  and  more  dur- 
able. 

SPACING  OF  TRUSSES.— For  the  least  weight  of  purlins  the 
distance  between  supports  must  be  a  minimum,  and  since  the 
weight  of  trusses  is  directly  proportioned  to  the  load  upon  them, 
the  least  total  weight  of  trusses  and  purlins  will  be  when  ihe  trusses 
are  placed  close  together.  This  reasoning  assumes  that  it  is  possible 
to  rea'.ir.e  practically  the  small  sections  required  for  the  truss  mem- 


PIP 


GENERAL  DESIGN.  I  j 

bers,  whicli  it  is  plainly  impossible  to  do.  Experience  shows  that 
the  most  economical  distance  between  centers  of  trusses  for  small 
spans  up  to  say  50  ft.,  is  from  10  ft.  to  16  ft.;  for  spans  e.xceeding 
50  ft.  it  should  be  from  one-fourth  to  one-eighth  of  the  span,  de- 
pending upon  the  nature  of  the  roof  covering  and  purlins. 

For  plank  laid  directly  on  ra  ;ers  spacing  should  not  exceed  8  ft. 
fc  r  2-in.  plank  and  10  ft.  for  3-in.  plank. 

JACK  RAFTERS. — Jack  rafters  need  not  ordinarily  be  used  in 
mill  buildings.  When,  however,  the  distance  between  trusses  ex- 
ceeds 20  ft.,  it  will  be  more  economical  of  material  to  run  a  few 
heavy  purlins  from  truss  to  truss  to  carry  one  or  more  jack  rafters 
which  in  turn  support  the  small  purlins  upon  which  the  roof  cov- 
ering rests.  This  construction  was  used  in  most  of  the  buildings 
for  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  and  in  many  of  the  roofs 
for  large  train  sheds  which  have  recently  been  constructed. 

ROOF  COVERINGS. — A  great  variety  of  roof  coverings  are 
available  to  the  engineer.  In  selecting  %  roof  covering  the  princi- 
pal things  to  be  considered  are  the  cost  and  the  necessity  or  not  of 
having  it  fire-proof  Figures  of  slopes  required  for  various  ordi- 
nary kinds  of  roof  coverings  are  given  in  Table  IV.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  material  requiring  the  greatest  slope  will  re- 
quire the  largest  amount  of  covering. 

TABLE  IV.— Showing  Least  Pitch  of  Roof  Required  for  Various  Kinds   of  Roof 

Coverings. 

Wood  shingles  on  plank least  pitch  =    '/« span. 

Slate,    large '•        "     =    V's  •' 

"       ordinary "       "     =    Vi  " 

"       in  cement "       "     =    "n  " 

Steel    roll    roofing "        "     =  ',',2  " 

Rubber "        "     =  Vn  " 

Asbestos "        "      =  '/ij  " 

Asphalt "        "     =  'Aa  " 

Corrugated  iron,  laid  In  cement "        "     =    '  s  " 

"  "    not  laid   in   cjment "        "     =    '/i  " 

Tar  and  gravel flat 

Tin  or  terne  plates " 

The  building  laws  of  the  principal  cities  specify  the  conditions 
unvler  which  fire-proof  roof  coverings  shall  be  used  and  also  state 
what  coverings  are  to  be  classed  as  fire-proof.  Where  this  matter 
is  not  specified,  the  engineer  must  decide  whether  or  not  the  risk 
warrants  the  use  of  fire-proof  roofing,  keeping  in  mind  always  that 
the  cost  of  insurance  on  fire-proof  buildings  is  less  than  for  build- 
ings which  do  not  come  within  this  classification.  When  the  risk 
is  inconsiderable  a  covering  of  some  of  the  best  brands  of  roofing 
paper  makes  in  every  respect  a  first-class  roof,  since  this  material 


<  "VM.-idR'ii  •=  zritm  ifF- 


12 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


T 


Fig.  9. 


i"gs  where  corro:  ve  ^sc/J:       I  7  ir"""  *'""°""  '"  ""''"- 
boanls  or  have  some  kin  I  of  IZ         ,"'"'"^  *""'"  "•=  "'"<  <"> 

.r™«e,  of  Ions  spa,,  where  erec  i„„  ""  '  I  e    >«  T"'  ""'  '" 
.<ivc,  pin  connection,  can  he  entplo™,"  ^jU'ertS.'a":  "'^'"■ 

n.^ie  ;ij^ff„-ll-r  — :;  :-  - -er  . 
tav.ng  K„s.e>  p,a,es  be.„een^he  a„j  ^  n,  flangS  171 
pnl  pen,  connecion,,.    It  ,„e  ,oa<l  is  „  .:,„,n^    ,1  "/ib 

eh  wet";;;' """ """"' '"" '  ""''■""'-■  -b  iv-  ■  - 

PURLIXS.-Angles.  channels,  Z-bars  and  I-beams  are  all  used 
ri;:-:^:--!     for  purlins.    Angles,  channels  and  Z- 
|=w^==^  bars  are  fastened  to  the  rafters  bv  an- 
'    ^j^''  «'^  ^'-P^-  Fig-   TO,  but  I-beams'  are 
^  II  iisually  bolted  directly  to  the  rafter 

Fig.  10.   Clip  Connection  Between  ^'^"  ^"^le  trussed  with  a  tension  rod 
Purlin  and  Rafter.  and  center  strut  is  a  form  of  p„rlin 

simple  shape-  -..  i^hout  t    ,ssin  AT'"T'  tTP'°>-^'''   but   ordinarily 
.•».-hraei„,iri„r'es,r-;Xl":^tt:n^Trr;h; 


GENERAL  DESIGN. 


13 


cost  of  manufacture.  It  is  more  economical  to  use  simple  shapes 
even  at  the  expense  of  increasing  the  weights  slightly  than  it  is  to  in- 
troduce trussing.  When  the  distance  between  rafters  is  more  than 
about  15  ft.  a  line  of  J-in.  rods  should  be  run  from  the  ridge  through 
ihe  purlins  to  prevent  them  from  sagging  in  the  plane  of  the  rafters. 
At  the  gable  walls  a  single  angle  ma .  be  built  into  the  masonry  and 
the  purlins  attached  to  it  by  clips  as  they  would  be  attached  to  a 
rafter. 

The  best  way  of  placing  angle  purlins  on  a  sloping  roof  is  as 
shown  in  the  sketch,  Fig.  loa.  In  this  position  it  has  a  greater  ver- 
tical moment  of  resistance  than  if  tht 
roof  leg  were  placed  in  a  reverse  posi- 
tion, as  in  Fig  lob.  To  rivet  the  over- 
lapping ends  of  the  corrugated  iron  on  '^'CJ'Oa- 
both  sides  of  the  angle  purlin,  as  si 
in  the  sketch.  Fig.  loc,  and  secunnc 
the  covering  to  the  angle  by  means  'FlgiOb. 
cf  a  bent  iron,  passing  around  the  purlin,  makes  altogether  a  very 
much  tighter  piece  of  work  than  for  a  single  clinch  nail  to  be  driven 
through  the  sheathing  and  bent  around  one  leg  of  the  purHn.  In 
order  to  protect  the  overhanging  corrugated  iron  at  the  eave  from 
being  battered  and  getting  out  of  shape  it  is  desirable  to  extend  the 
upper  chord  angles  of  the  trusses  out  far  enough  to  receive  an  out- 
.^(•e  purlin  placed  as  nea.ly  as  possible  at  the  edge  of  the  sheath- 
ing. This  overhang  nred  not  be  greater  than  12  or  15  ins.,  and 
if  a  slightly  better  app  .arance  is  desired  a  molded  sheet  metal  cor- 
nice may  be  used. 


shown  y^ 

^curing      y^^ 


A 

/    fig.  10  c. 


1^1 

In 


UNIT  STRESSES. — For  dead  and  for  live  load  stresses  a  factor 
of  safety  of  four  is  sufficient.  For  greater  combinations  such  as 
(lead,  live,  wind  an:'  crane  loads  combined,  a  factor  of  safety  of 
three  should  be  used.  The  temporary  buildings  for  the  Columbian 
Exposition  at  Chicago  were  proportioned  for  unit  tensile  strains 
of  from  20,000  lbs.  to  25,000  lbs.  per  square  inch  of  section. 

LIGHTING  AND  VENTILATION.— A  very  efficient  method 
of  lighting  mill  buildings  is  to  make  the  entire  upper  halves  of  the 
side  walls  of  windows  with  the  sash  bolted  to  the  framing.  In 
buildings  which  do  not  require  heating  in  cold  weather,  such  as 
forge  shops  and  ooiler  houses,  the  lower  halves  of  the  side  walls 
may  be  made  of  wood  panels  which  can  be  eas-'y  removed  to  allow 
a  free  circulation  of  air  and  to  give  clear  space  for  the  handling  of 


'■SilP' 


^AB5i*6«»:r='!-B'*-?'|ii^.-^-. qBH^^i i'SiS  ■•'-.^ 


M  MIU.    BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION 

vvuh  open  sides  are  us!.a,ly  yS^o':„t"n;„";.^;;|- ^t 
forge  shops  or  other  buildings  where  there  is  considerable  .as  and 

l^^^L      rT'  '■°°'  ""''  ""'  ^^"^"^d  --h  more  efficiem  as  a 
en Ulator  by  p  acng  a  line  of  shutters  about  2  ft.  high  in  the  !  de 

wa  dIJt  ■"■    °"Tt     ''■'^"  ^'^"^  ^''""-^  "^  opened  an  up 
hor  roof      """'  ''^°"^'  ''^"^  ^"^  ^^^  °P-  ->es  of  the  mon- 

A  good  common  rule  for  the  amount  of  windows  required  in  the 
side  of  a  buddmg  is  to  make  the  window  area  one-fifth  "he  waU 
or  say  one-tenth  of  the  total  floor  area.  In  place  of  removable 
wooden  panels  for  the  sides,  corrugated  iron  doors  may  sometim 
be  used  to  advantage.  These  are  built  to  fill  the  whofe  pane  Tnd 
are  counter  weighted.  They  can  be  easily  opened,  but  on  account 
of  the  counter  we.ghts  and  rigging  for  han^ng  them,  the  cost  U 
consKkrably  more  than  that  of  wooden  panels.     If  sash  is  used   n 

nor  should  be  Wide,  say  one-fourth  the  whole  width  of  the  building 
n  order  to  allow  light  to  reach  the  floor.  This  arrangem  n  o^ 
.de  monitor  however,  does  not  secure  so  good  ventilation.  The 
upper  part  of  the  roof  holds  a  considerable  amount  of  dead  air 
To  overcome  this  a  second  smaller  monitor  may  be  placed  along 
th  ndge  With  louvres  or  shutters  on  the  sides.  This  arrangement 
Will  secure  both  a  light  interior  and  good  ventilation. 

ESTIMATING  THE  COST.-It  has  already  been  stated  that 
the  weight  of  steel  frames  for  mills  and  similar  buildings  is  from 
4  lbs.  to  6  lbs  per  sq.  ft.  of  exposed  wall  and  roof  surface;  also 
that  provision  for  traveling  crane  adds  a  weight  of  about  loo  lbs. 
per  hn.  ft.  of  building  for  every  five  tons  capacity  of  crane  Other 
material  such  as  brick  wall,  roofing,  doors,  windows  and  floors  is 
vei-y  easily  figured  out  in  square  feet.  Hence,  with  the  aid  of  the 
following  table  of  prices,  the  approximate  cost  of  the  whole  build- 
ing can  be  very  quickly  estimated. 


GENERAL  DESIGN. 


IJ 


TABLE  OP  APPROXIMATE  PRICES. 

Common  brick  work 25  to  35c.  per  cu.  tt 

Rubble  maionry *5  to  If"  per  cu.  yd 

Concrete f*>  to  #**  per  cu.  yd. 

Cut  Stone  pier  caps ♦-  per  cu.  ft. 

PUet  In  place 25  ct».  per  lln.  ft. 

Earth  excavation 50  eta.  per  cu.  yd. 

Steel  trust  and  column  frame  In  place 4  cti.  per  lb. 

Steel  beam*.  In  place 3 

Plain  casting •_• -2 

Corrugated  Iron  ..u.  22,  In  place,  black 7  cts.  per  iq.  tt. 

"  "         galvanized 0     "      "         '■ 

Flashing,   galvanized 15    "      " 

Spruce  luml^er.  In  place  on  floor  or  roof f25  per  M. 

H.  P.  matclied,  In  place $35      " 

H.  P.  Joist  and  purllLS,  on  floor  or  roof $30      " 

Door  frames   and  doors 50  cts.  per  sq.  ft 

Window  frames  and  window  i .^.,.50    " 

Sash,  glazed  and  painted 15  to  25 

Gutter  and  conductor 2.'  n.  ft. 

Stairs.  3  ft.  wide,  wood step. 

Stairs,  3  ft.  wide.  Iron step. 

Rolling  steel  shutters 5*)  sq.  ft. 

Louvres,  flxed 51'  " 

Louvres,    moving 75  " 

Corrugated  Iron  doors  and  shutters %'  " 

Wire  netting,   galvanized l"*  " 

Skylight,  Vi-ln.   thick  glass 2.". 

Skylight,  translucent  falrlc 15 

Pipe  railing 50  c  in    ft. 

Round  ventilators *  >l«>  eseh. 

Metal  cornice 10  to  2.")  er  lln    ft. 

Slate  roof,  not  including  boards $7  to  $12  per  10  x  !•   ft. 

Slag  and  gravel  roof,  not  includ'g  boards.  |5  "  S7 
Prep'r'd  comp'slt'n  roof,  n't  Incl'd'g  b'ds  |2  "  15 
Wood  shingle  roof,  not  Including  boards.  $3  "    15 

Tin  plate  roof,  not  Including  boards 110  "  |12 

Corrugated  Iron  roof 17"   f{> 

Roughly  speaking,  the  cost  of  one-story  iron  h  gs.  rtim^*'te. 

is,  for  sheds  and  storage  houses,  40  to  60  cts.  p<     sq. 

and  for  such  buildings  as  machine  shops,  fr nes, 

plants,  that  are  provided  with  traveling  crani      .he  cc  no 

to  90  Cts.  per  sq.  ft.  of  ground  covered. 


;| 


i6 


MILL     DL'ILDIXO     CONSTRUCTION, 


CHAPTER  III. 
DESIGN     OF    STRUCTURAL    DETAILS. 

FOUX  NATIONS  AND  ANCHORAGE.— The  subject  of  foun- 
dation cot.  truction  i.s  such  an  extensive  ont  that  it  is  impossible  to 
consider  it  exhaustively  within  the  limits  assijjned  to  this  book. 
It  will  he  evident  to  all,  however,  that  the  design  of  foundations 
for  the  great  majority  of  shop  buildings  is  not  a  difficult  problem, 
Fince  the  site  selected  for  them  will  usually  be  in  a  location  free 
from  water  and  treacherous  .soils. 

For  the  outside  lines  of  columns  either  a  continuous  foundation 
wall,  if  the  columns  are  close  together,  or,  individual  piers,  if  the 
columns  are  widely  separated,  may  be  employed.  In  either  case 
the  foundations  must  have  ample  area  to  distribute  the  loads  over 
a  sufficient  area  of  foundation  bed  to  ensure  safety  from  settlement. 
The  bearing  power  of  (UfTerent  soils  is  given  in  Table  \'. 

If  the  building  is  large  and  any  doubt  exists  as  to  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  foundation  soil,  soundings  should  be  made  and  the 
bearing  power  tested  by  placing  weights  on  a  small  known  area. 
The  bottom  of  the  walls  should  always  be  carried  to  a  sufficient 

TABLE  v.— Showing  Supporting  Power  of  Various  Foundation  Soils  In  Tons  per 

S'luare  Foot. 

BeJrock  (hardest) 20() 

(poor) ."J  to  30 

Dry  clay  In  thick  beds 4 

Soft  clay 1 

Gravel  and  sand  wel!  cemented 8 

Compact   sand 4 

Clean  and  dry  sand 2 

Quicksand  and  soft  soils i j, 

d»»pth  to  make  certain  that  the  original  bed  Si. "  is  reached.  A  few 
layers  of  wet  sand  or  gravel  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  excava- 
tion, filing  it  from  side  to  side,  and  thoroughly  rammed  will  help 
to  distribute  the  pressure  evenly.  The  wall  or  piers  should  have 
two  good  footing  courses  and  the  projection  of  each  course  bevond 
the  one  immediately  above  should  be  so  small  that  the  lower  foot- 
ing will  not  be  cracked  by  the  bending  strain  from  the  load  above. 
Each  column  should  rest  on  a  cut  stone  cap  except  ..here  the  load 
is  so  small  that  the  foot  of  the  column  may  rest  directly  on  the  reg- 
ular masonry  without  danger  of  crushing.    The  usual  safe  load  for 


'  ."TriHtiW  at.^tlA-IWimartt^k^lGBMtjy'^Jf-^rq^Bia', 


■"-.fa  •^~*"^**i  -J*  ■r'.Mis''"ii*^  ■'' 


r.  '  .'..-Stit^^^i 


GROUND    FLOOr      _   .  J8TRUCTI0.V. 


17 


Stone  IS  250  lbs.  per  s.i.  in.  and  for  brick  is  125  tbs.  per  sq.  in.  In 
the  opinion  of  the  writer  hard  brick  or  concrete  are  superior  to 
stone  for  small  foundations  on  account  of  their  better  bond. 

i'or  very  light  loads  a  wooden  box  may  be  set  in  the  ground  and 
filled  with  concrete,  the  column  ba.'j  resting  directly  on  the  con- 
Crete  or  on  a  thin  layer  of  cement  mortar  covering  the  top  of  the 
cuncrt-.'.  In  special  cases  of  heavy  loads  on  soft  soil  a  grillage  of 
concrete  and  I-beams  .n-  of  concrete  and  railway  rails  will  enable 
the  load  to  be  distributed  over  the  requisite  area  with  a  saving  over 
masonry. 

Where  there  is  a  tendency  toward  overturning,  the  column  bases 
should  be  anchor-bolted  to  the  foundation  masonry.  Generally  the 
anchor  bolts  should  extend  through  the  masonry  and  be  fastened 
on  the  underside.  These  bolts  arc  set  in  position  by  means  of 
wooden  templates  and  asonry  is  built  up  around  them.     In 

some  cases  a  small  -'  •  ,.,or  set  in  the  capstone,  with  sulphur 
or  lead,  will  prcvn  cient  anchorage. 

It  is  the  practici.  ^f  the  writer  in  designing  wall  columns  for 
buihhngs  to  consider  the  same  rigidly  fixed  at  the  base,  provided 
there  is  sufficient  load  on  the  column  to  hold  it  down.  In  some 
cases  even  though  the  load  may  be  considerable,  if  the  post  is  small 
there  is  still  a  liability  to  pin  ended  action. 

GROUND  FLOOR  COXSTRUCTIOX. 

CONCRETE  FLOORS.-In  the  construction  of  floors  as  in 
other  parts  of  the  building  the  requirements  of  each  case  will  de- 
termine the  design  and  construction  to  be  adapted.  A  very  solid 
floor  is  made  as  follows:  The  soil  is  excavated  to  a  depth  of 
about  18  ins.  and  leveled  up. 
Upon  the  bottom  of  this  exca- 


•I'Cermni.     3'Con(reH. 


vation  is  placed  a  6-in.  layer  of  j^^'hi^ji 

broken    stone   which    is    thor-  W^^^^^^^^^^^' 

Dughly  rammed  and  the.;  cov-     ''^''^'Tr" 

ered  with  a  layer  of  concrete  8       '''■  ''■    ^TTJ^T'  '""" 

ins.  thick.    After  the  concrete 

has  set  it  is  covered  with  a  wearing  surface  of  cement  4  ins.  thick. 

A  combination  of  asphalt,  Portland  cement  and  sand  makes  a  good 

wearing  surface.    T":  ,•  „  shows  a  section  of  this  floor. 

ASPHALT  I  I  rv  RS  »>;;i,alt  floors  are  becoming  very  popu- 
lar where  smah  ost  i  ^  ncjt  the  t-ief  consideration.  Rock  asphalt 
is  limestone  im  -t-y  .-?z  .•  tli  i  om  8^  to  17^  of  bitumen.     It  is 


H^SSX^SEs 


.■*ix?-  '■■<^\.~ 


7^^ 


i8 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


found  in  many  localities,  but  the  principal  workable  deposits  are  at 
Limmer  in  Germany,  Neuchatel  in  Switzerland,  and  at  Seyssel  in 
France.  Less  well-known  deposits  exist  at  Ragusa  in  Sicily,  near 
Santa  Barbara  in  California,  and  in  Kentucky,  Colorado,  Utah  and 
New  Mexico.  For  shipping  the  rock  is  usually  made  into  asphalt 
mastic  in  the  following  manner:  The  rock  is  ground  into  powder 
and  heated  in  kettles  with  8^  of  Trinidad  asphaltum  added  to  pre- 
vent burning.  The  mixture  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  350°  and 
kept  at  that  temperature  for  about  five  hours,  being  constantly 
stirred  the  whole  time.  The  next  step  of  the  process  is  to  mold  the 
mixture  into  blocks  weighing  from  50  lbs.  to  60  lbs.  each.  These 
blocks  as  purchased  in  the  market  always  have  the  name  of  the 
mine  from  which  they  come  plainly  stamped  on  them.  When  mar- 
keted the  mastic  should  contain  14^  of  bitumen  and  86;^  of  caroon- 
ate  of  lime. 

To  prepare  the  mastic  for  flooring  it  is  mixed  with  Trinidad  as- 

phalt  and  sand  in  the  following  proportions :  Mastic  blocks,  broken, 

... X'y ""....  ^       ^  "''■ '  '^""'^'^^  asp'ialt,  4  fbs. ;  fine  gravel  and 

l^^r^'-^-^-      sand,  36  lbs.    This  mixture  is  heated  for  about 

'_  ■  five  hours  at  400°  F.,  and  is  constantly  stirred 

^0-  ''2-  during  the  heating.    At  the  termination  of  this 

Asphalt  Floor  wiOi  Con-    i,^-,.; ,i  ..      •    i   •      ,    i  ,     ,       . 

Crete  Foundation.         heating  the  material  IS  taken  out  of  the  kettles 

and  spread. 
For  a  mill  floor  the  asphalt  should  be  spread  i  in.  thick  on  a 
foundation  of  concrete  or  on  boards.  The  concrete  foundation 
should  be  3  ins.  or  4  ins.  thick,  and  if  boards  are  used  they  should 
be  covered  with  a  layer  of  sheathing  paper  before  the  asphalt  is 
placed.  Fig.  12  is  a  section  of  asphalt  floor  having  a  concrete  foun- 
dation and  Fig.  13  is  a  similar  section  with  a  foundation  of  wood. 

Any  composition  of  coal  tar  becomes  useless  in  a  short  time  on 
account  of  the  evaporation  of  the  tar  which  causes  the  material  to 
disintegrate   and    crumble    away.     Felt  satu-  I'AsphaH-;     rtrper. 

rated  with  coal  tar  becomes  brittle  and  finally 
useless.    The  oils  of  asphalt,  however,  are  not 
volatile  at  any  natural  temperature,  and  hence 
properly  prepared  asphalt  flooring  composi- 
tion   remains    absolutely    unchanged    during 
years    of   exposure    to   the    air   and    sunlight.     Other   important 
advantages  of  asphalt  for  flooring  are  that  it  is  impervious  to  water 
and  is  so  elastic  that  cracks  do  not  develop.     An  asphalt  floor  has 
no  joints  to  accumulate  dirt  and  can  be  easily  and  thoroughly 
cleaned.    It  is  pleasant  to  walk  on,  not  tiring  the  feet  as  do  stone 


4'P!anH 


gnal^ 


"TW 


Fig.  13. 
Asphalt  Floor  with  Wood 
Foundation. 


GROUND  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


19 


blocks  or  flagging.  It  is  not  worn  away  by  traffic  as  are  stone 
blocks,  but  is  simply  compressed.  Asphalt  flooring  costs  16  cts. 
per  square  foot  when  laid  i-in.  thick,  the  cost  running  higher  or 
lower  according  to  the  location  and  size  of  the  floor. 

There  are  many  imitations  of  asphalt  made  of  coal  tar  and 
crushed  limestone  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  from 
the  genuine  article,  but  none  of  these  imitations  has  the  properties 
of  asphalt.  These  imitation  asphalts  will  all  crack  and  crumble 
after  a  few  years'  service. 

Asphalt  is  softened  and  finally  destroyed  by  oil  and  it  cannot, 
therefore,  be  recommended  for  floors  subjected  to  oil  drippings 
from  machinery  and  materials. 

WOOD  FLOORS.— A  first-class  wood  floor  is  made  as  follows : 
Excavate  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  18  ins.  and  place  a  thoroughly 
rammed  layer  of  concrete  8  ins.  thick  on  the  bottom.  After  this 
layer  of  concrete  has  set  place  6x6-in.  sleepers  of  pine  or  spruce  3 

ft.  apart  c.  to  c.  and  fill  be- 


3'Pkink-4  Concrete..^         -gVg 


?M:W¥1^. 


WW^- 


Fig.  14. 


Heavy  Timber  and  Concrete 
Floor. 


tween   them   and   flush   with 
their  tops  with  a  second  layer 
of  concrete.     For  a  wearing 
surface  lay  a  flooring  of  3-in. 
plank  spiked  to  the  sleepers. 
Fig.  14  is  a  section  of  floor  of 
this  construction.     This  floor  construction  is  heavy  and  solid  and 
will  carry  ordinary  machinery  without  special    machine    founda- 
tions. 

A  much  lighter  and  cheaper  wood  floor  may  be  constructed  by 
embedding  3-in.  plank  or  half-round  sleepers  in  a  layer  of  6  ins. 
cr  8  ins.  of  cinders  and  spiking  to  them  a  flooring  of  3-in.  plank 


3'Phnk-^ 


^ 


■e'gnder 


'mm 


Fig.  15.  Light  Timber  and  Concrete  Floor. 


(Fig.  15)-  When  this  con 
struction  of  floor  is  used  all 
machines  must  be  provided 
with  special  foundations. 
Wood  block  pavement  on  a 
concrete  foundation  is  a  form  of  shop  floor  which  has  been 
considerably  used,  but  the  writer  cannot  recommend  this  construc- 
tion. 

FLOOR  FOR  CAR  SHEDS.-Car  sheds  for  electric  railways 
require  a  special  floor  construction  because  of  the  pits  beneath  the 
tracks  for  the  use  of  the  inspectors  and  cleaners.  These  pits  are 
from  4  ft.  to  5  ft.  deep.    A  common  construction  is  to  build  brick 


ao 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


piers  nearty  to  tlie  height  of  tlie  floor  level  which  carry  timber  sills, 
lo  which  the  floor  planking  is  spiked. 

W  here  wood  floor.s  are  employed  the  preservation  of  the  timber 
from  decay  is  an  important  consideration.  The  best  authorities  on 
the  question  recommend  the  application  of  a  coating-  of  lime  'A-'in. 
thick  around  the  sills  and  on  the  bottoms  of  the  floor  planks.  This 
protection  should  give  the  floor  a  life  of  50  years.  Mixing  coal 
tar  with  the  concrete  makes  a  good  preservative,  or  the  concrete 
may  be  covered  with  tar  wherever  the  floor  timbers  come  in  contact 
with  it.  Coating  the  sills  and  the  underside  of  the  planking  with 
rosin  is  another  excellent  means  of  preventing  decay. 

UPPER  FLOOR  COXSTRUCTIOX. 

STEEL  TROUGH  FLOORS.-There  is  probably  no  more  sub- 
stantial a  construction  for  floors  above  the  ground  floor  than  the 
riveted  steel  tror-ii  construction  known  as  the  Lindsay  floor. 
With  this  construction  the  floor  boards  may  be  laid  directly  on 
the  metal  or  they  may  be  spiked  to  small  timber  sills  embedded 
flush  in  a  concrete  or  cinder  filling  carried  by  the  troughs,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  16.  The  "Hand  Books"  published  by  most  of  the  rolling 
mills  give  the  safe  load  per  square  foot  of  trough  flooring  for  vari- 
ous spans. 

CORRUGATED  IRON  AND  BRICK  ARCH  FLOORS.— A 
cheaper  construction  of  iron  floor  than  the  steel  trough  consists  of 
corrugated  iron  arches  sprung  between  I-beams  and  filled  above 
with  concrete  in  which  the  timber  sills  are  bedded  and  planked  over, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  17.  This  floor  has  no  spring.  Corrugated  iron 
sheets  of  No.  18  B.  W.  G.,  having  a  span  of  6  ft.  and  a  rise  of  10 
ins.,  have  in  actual  tests  sustained  a  load  of  1,000  lbs.  per  square 
foot.  Brick  or  terra  cotta  arches  filled  above  with  concrete  is  a 
floor  construction  which  has  been  much  used,  but  besides  being 
heavy  and  expensive,  this  construction  cannot  be  recommended  for 
floors  which  are  subjected  to  vibration  from  heavy  running  machin- 
ery.    Fig.  18  is  a  section  of  brick  arch  floor. 

STEEL  GIRDER  AND  TIMBER  FLOORS.— A  floor  con- 
struction which  has  been  extensively  employed  consists  of  a  timber 
flooring  carried  by  metal  beams  or  girders.  Fig.  19  shows  one 
form  of  this  construction,  which  consists  of  steel  T-heams  spaced 
3  ft.  or  4  ft.  apart  and  capped  with  timbers  to  which  a  flooring  of 
3-in.  or  4-in.  plank  is  spiked.     Another  form  of  this  construction  is 


UPPER     FLOOR    CONSTRUCTION. 


21 


shown  by  Fig.  20,  which  consists  of  built  up  steel  girders  capped 
with  plank  and  carrying  timber  joists  to  which  the  planit  flooring 
is  spiked.  In  this  construction  the  girders  are  spaced  from  10  ft. 
to  15  ft.  apart.  Another  form  of  I-beam  and  timber  floor  construc- 
tion which  is  not  much  used  in  tliis  country  but  which  is  a  very  effi- 


■Cyndtrs 


ZUiyprs  fhorinq 


SLayers  Flooring 


P5f 


Cemgtrna 
Fig.    17 


yCynelers 


Fig.    16. 


Fig.    18. 


■  IT.:-  ■( 


Vc&rhed  Flmrmq 


Fig.    21. 


5'Phnl, 


Fig.    20. 


Pig.    22. 


Figs.  16  to  22.    Typical  Upper  Floor  Constructions. 

cient  construction  for  heavy  loads  is  shown  by  Fig.  21.  The  I- 
beam  joists  are  spaced  the  proper  distance  apart,  which  should  be 
not  more  than  3  ft.  or  4  ft.,  so  that  the  depth  of  the  wooden  flooring 
may  be  kept  at  the  minimum,  and  on  them  planks  are  set  close  to- 
gether on  edge  .md  firmly  spiked  together.  The  top  of  this  plank- 
ing is  then  covered  with  a  i-in.  coating  of  fine  sand  mortar  and 
a  wearing  surface  of  matched  boards  is  laid  on  top  of  it. 

SLOW  BURXIXG  WOOD  FLOORS.— A  form  of  floor  con- 
struction known  as  "slow  bu.niiiyf  construction"  is  shown  by  Fig. 
22.  The  principle  of  this  construction,  which  is  entirely  of  wood, 
is  to  concentrate  the  timber  into  the  fewest  number  of  large  pieces 
so  that  a  minimum  surface  will  be  exposed  to  the  attack  of  flames. 
The  construction  consists  simply  of  widely  spaced  heavy  timber 
joists  covered  with  a  flooring  of  heavy  planks. 


22 


MILiL    BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


ROOF  COVERINGS 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS.— The  importance  of  having 
an  absolutely  weather-proof  roof  for  shop  buildings  is  evident  with- 
out argument.  The  kind  of  roof  covering  employed  determines 
in  a  large  measure  the  possible  pitch  or  slope  of  the  roof.  A  roof 
with  a  steep  slope  sheds  rain  and  snow  more  efficiently  than  one 
which  is  more  nearly  flat,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  a  greater 
area  and  consequently  of  being  heavier  and  also  of  presenting  a 
larger  surface  to  wind  pressure.  .\1!  metal  roofs  are  lightning- 
proof  and  because  of  their  smooth  surfaces  are  more  easily  kept 
clean  by  the  wind  and  rain  and  the  rainwater  from  them  is  likely  to 
be  more  pure  than  that  off  a  shingle  or  gravel  roof.  With  these 
brief  general  remarks  attention  will  be  turned  to  the  various  forms 
of    -)of  coverings. 


SLATE  ROOFING. — Roofing  slates  are  usually  from  ^-in.  to 
i-in.  thick  and  of  various  sizes.  The  minimum  slope  of  roof  rec- 
ommended for  slate  covering  is  one  with  a  6-in.  pitch.  If  the  pitch 
is  less  than  this  water  is  likely  to  be  driven  through  the  joints  in 
beating  rains.  If,  however,  the  joints  are  laid  in  cement,  the  pitch 
may  be  decreased  to  4  ins.  or  5  ins.  to  the  foot.  Cement  joints  are 
advantageous  in  any  case  since  they  prevent  the  slates  from  break- 
ing and  make  the  building  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer. 
A  few  courses  of  slate,  with  cement  joints,  are  always  advisable  at 
the  eaves  and  ridges  and  around  chimneys.  If  the  roof  is  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  corrosive  gases,  as  is  the  case  in  chemical  works, 
cement  joints  are  imperative  because  any  kind  of  nails  will  be  de- 
stroyed after  a  time. 

Slate  when  well  laid  have  a  longer  life  probably  than  any  other 
form  of  roof  covering;  they  will  last  for  50  years  or  more.  Slate 
make  a  firc-proof  roof  covering,  but  they  will  crack  when  exposed 
to  heat  and  also  if  they  are  walked  upon.  Hard  slate  of  a  shiny  ap- 
pearance are  the  best ;  those  that  absorb  water  will  be  destroyed 
by  frost.  Slate  may  be  laid  on  boards,  on  lath  or  directlv  on  iron 
purlins.  \\  hen  laid  on  wood  they  arc  held  in  place  by  two  nails, 
one  in  each  upper  corner.  When  laid  on  iron  purlins  they  are  held 
in  place  by  copi)cr  wire.  For  roofs  of  small  pitch  a  lining  of  roof- 
ing felt  will  help  to  mal-    t'le  roof  watertight. 


ROOP    COVERINQS.  2^ 

The  cost  of  nails  for  slate  roofing  varies  with  the  market,  but  the 

following  table  is  a  fair  average : 

3d.  galvanized  slate  nails,  per  liegr 15.50 

4d.  "  "  "       5.00 

3d.  tinned  "  "       5.7o 

4d.        "  "  "       5.25 

3d.  or  4d.  polished  steel  wire  nails,  per  keg 4.00 

Copper  nails,   per  lb 20 

Slaters'  felt  in  rolls  of  six  squares  costs  $1.25  per  roll ;  two-ply 
tar  roofing  felt  costs  $1  per  square,  and  three-ply  $1.25  per  square. 
Slaters'  cement  in  25-tb.  kegs  costs  10  cts.  per  pound. 

Shorter  slates  must  be  used  for  the  first  course  at  thj  eaves 
and  the  final  course  at  the  peak.  To  give  the  first  course  at  the 
eaves  the  same  inclination  or  slope  that  the  succeeding  courses  will 
have,  a  thin  lath  murt  be  laid  under  the  slate  at  the  edge  of  the 
eaves.  A  lap  ol  3  ins.  is  the  amount  usually  allowed  and  it  should 
not  be  decreased.  Slate  does  not  make  a  cheap  roof  covering,  be- 
cause it  is  heavy  and  requires  a  stronger  framing  to  carry  it,  and  be- 
cause the  steep  pitch  required  makes  the  area  to  be  covered  large. 
At  present  the  Brownville  and  Monson  slates  of  Maine  and  the 
Peach  Bottom  slate  of  Pennsylvania  are  the  best  and  also  the  most 
expensive. 

The  weight  of  slate  per  cubic  foot  is  174  lbs.,  hence  the  weight 
per  square  foot  of  different  thicknesses  of  roofing  slate  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Weight,  lbs.  Weight,  lbs. 

Thi'-kness.  per  sq.  ft.  Thickness.  per  sq.  ft. 

>/,-ln.  181  Vs-in.  .5.4."? 

Vi.-in.  2.71  'A-ln.  7.25 

V.-in.  3.02 

An  experienced  roofer  will  lay  about  two  (10  ft.  x  10  ft.)  squares 
per  day  of  ten  hours.  The  price  of  the  best  slate  on  board  cars  at 
the  quarrico  is  from  $5  to  $7  per  square,  according  to  size  and  color. 
Red  slate  costs  from  $10  to  $12  per  square,  and  ordinary  slate, 
black,  purple,  or  of  mixed  colors,  cost  from  $2  to  $4  per  square. 
These  prices  include  punching  and  countersinking  the  nail  holes. 
Table  \T.  gives  the  number  of  slate  per  square,  using  3-in.  lap  for 
various  sizes  of  slate. 
TABLE  VI.— Showing  Number  of  Roonng  Slate  of   Different   Sizes   and  3-in.   Lap 

Required  per  Square  of  10  x  10  ft 
Size,  No.  in  each  Size,  No.  in  each  Size,  No.  in  each 

ins.  square  laid.  ins.  square  laid.  ins.  square  laid. 

6x12  5.S3  0x1(5  247  11x22  138 

7x12  457  lOxKi  222  12x22  120 

Sx12  400  0^18  214  12x24  115 

7x14  3:4  lOxlH  na  13x24  106 

Sxl4  .'W7  lOx'JO  170  14x24  98 

9x14  201  11x20  154 

8x16  277  12>c20  142 


I 


1 


H 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


ASPHALT  ROOFING.-Asphalt  roofing  for  flat  roofs  is  ap- 
p  led  as  follows:  (i)  One  or  two  layers  of  felt  paper ;  (2)  a  coating 
of  asphalt  roofing  cement :  (3)  a  laver  of  roofing  felt ;  (4)  a  fi-ial 
coating  of  asphalt  cement  into  which  is  rolled  clean  sand  and  fine 
gravel.  I- or  pitched  or  sloping  roofs  the  layers  of  roofing  felt  al- 
ready cemented  together  by  the  first  coating  of  asphalt  cement  are 
sold  in  rolls  about  36  ins.  wide.  This  covering  is  laid  in  courses 
with  the  edges  overlapping  about  2  ins.  and  fastened  with  the  nails 
and  tin  washers.  When  laid  the  roofing  is  covered  with  the  final 
coating  of  asi)halt  cement  and  gravel.  A  canvas  bottom  laver  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  first  layer  of  paper.  This  form  of  covering 
with  the  top  covering  and  gravel  complete  and  ready  for  laying 
is  sold  for  $3.50  per  square  of  10x10  ft.  -  ^     t. 

The  principal  advantage  of  any  kind  of  asphalt  roof  covering  is 
that  It  is  perfectly  water-proof,  and  after  being  laic'  it  does  not 
crack  or  peel  off  like  tar  and  does  not  run  at  anv  natural  tempera- 
ture. W  hen  graveled  over  it  makes  a  practicailv  fire-proof  roof- 
ing.    I-inally,  it  is  easily  applied  by  unskilled  workmen. 

SLAG  AXD  GRA\EL  ROOFIXG.-SIag  is  preferable  to 
gravel  or  .hese  roofs  because  of  its  lighter  weight.  The  construc- 
tion of  both  Slag  roofing  and  gravel  roofing  is  as  follows :  (i)  Three 
layers  of  felt  paper  are  fastened  to  the  roof;  (2)  a  coating  of  tar  is 
applied  to  the  top  layer  of  felt ;  (3)  two  layers  of  felt  paper  are  laid 
on  the  tar;  (4)  a  covering  of  tar  is  applied  to  the  top  layer  of  the 
second  course  of  felt  u.-ing  about  eight  gallons  of  tar  per  10x10  ft 
square,  and  the  slag  or  gravel  is  rolled  into  the  tar.  This  form  of 
roof  covering  should  last  from  10  to  20  years.  It  is  fire-proof 
needs  no  pamt  and  refracts  the  heat.  It  is  noiseless  and  is  not  af- 
fected by  gas.  acids,  etc.  Finally,  it  is  a  comparativelv  cheap  cover- 
ing, costing  5o>'  less  than  tin 

CORRUGATED  IRON  ROOFIXG.-Corrugated  iron  is  made 
from  sheet  iron  of  standard  gages  by  stamping,  one  corrugation 
being  stamped  at  a  time.  As  there  are  no  sharp  joints  to  be  made 
there  is  no  advantage  in  using  sheet  steel.  The  corrugated  sheets 
are  made  in  lengths  increasing  in  dimensions  by  even  feet  from  5 
ft.  to  ID  ft.,  inclusive,  and  of  such  width  that  they  lav  2  ft.  even  on 
the  roof.  The  sizes  of  corrugations  made  in  the  United  States 
are  5  ins.,  2^  ins.,  i}  ins.,  f-in.,  and  3-16-in.  c.  to  c.  of  corrugations. 
The  24-in.  corrugation  is  the  size  most  commonly  used.  Table 
Vn.  gives  the  costs  and  weights  of  both  black  and' galvanized  iron 


ROOF     COVERINGS. 


25 


for  Dirniingliani  Wire  CJage  and  the  new  American  Standard  Gage 
adopted  by  Congress  in  1893. 


TABLE  VII.— Showing  Cost  and   Weight  per  10  x  10  ft.   Square  of  Painted  and 
Galvanized  Corrugated  Iron. 


Gage. 

2,H 

27 

2ti 

24 

«>•> 

20.  . .  . 

18 

10 

I — Painted 
Wt.lbs.  Price 
persq.  persq. 

*.i.oo 

3.20 

;j.,so 

7.20 
U.UO 


Birmingham. 


I — Galvanized. — 1 
Wt.lbs.      Price 


HI 

its 
12:{ 
l.-.:{ 
214 
2S3 


persq. 
8.' 
!I4 
101 
114 
141 
1,S8 
221 
287 


per  sq. 
$h!4<» 

5.(;o 

(i.80 

8.40 

ll.tlO 

15.20 


-American.- 


I—  Painted.  — , 
Wt.lbs.    Prlie 


per  sq. 

1*1' 
7" 

84 

111 

138 

105 

220 


i-GaIvanized.-| 
Wt.lbs.     Price 


per  sq. 
$2.t)(» 

3.10 

3.30 

4.15 

4.90 

o.m 

7.40 
8.00 


per  sq. 

80 

113 

99 
127 
154 
182 
23t; 


per  sq. 

!?4.i«) 

$5.30 

5.50 

t;.4<) 

7.40 


The  prices  given  in  Table  VII.  are  for  small  lots ;  for  car  bad  lots 
the  prices  will  be  about  lo-f  less.  This  table  also  refers  to  5-in.  2^- 
in.,  and  3-16-in.  corrugations;  for  i^-in.  and  |-in.  corrugations,  $^ 
should  be  added  to  the  weirhts  and  prices  given.  If  painted  with 
asphalt  or  graphite  instead  of  iron  oxide,  the  cost  will  be  25  cts.more 
per  10x10  ft.  square.  Wire  nails  cost  10  cts.  per  square;  galvan- 
ized nails  cost  15  cts.  per  square  and  cleats  and  bolts  cost  25  cts. 

per  square.    The  price  of  curved  sheets 
is  20%  more  than  that  of  straight  sheets. 
Hg.es.  The  sheets  of  corrugated  iron  should 

be  laid  with  a  lap  of  4  ins.,  as  shown  by 
Fig.   23,  when  used   for  covering  side 
Fig.84..  walls,  and  with  a  lap  of  6  ins.,  as  shown 

by  Fig.  24,  when  used  for  roof  covering. 
When  laid  on  wood  sheathing  corrugated  iron  covering  is  lined 
with  water-proof  paper  and  fastened  with  6d.  nails,  using  about  25 
nails  per  sheet.  \\'hen  laid  on  iron  purlins  for  boiler  houses  or 
anywhere  that  water  is  likely  to  collect  on  the  underside  of  the  cor- 
rugated sheets,  a  lining  of  the  following  composition  may  be  em- 
ployed: (i)  Wire  netting  tightly  stretched  over  the  purlins;  (2) 
asbestos  paper ;  (3)  tar  paper ;  (4)  asbestos  paper ;  (5)  tar  paper ;  and 
(6)  the  corrugated  iron  roof  covering.  When  corrugated  iron  is 
laid  over  iron  purlins  it  may  be  fastened  to  them  by  clinch  nails 
bent  around  the  purlins,  as  shown  by  Fig.  25,  or  by  cleats  of  ^-in. 
hnnp  iron  2I  in';,  lorsrf  riveted  or  hoUcd  to  the  sheets  and  to  the  pur- 
lins. Generally,  however,  cleats  of  this  form  are  used  especially 
with  channel  or  Z-bar  purlins.  The  clinch  nails  or  cleats  should  be 
placed  about  5  ins.  or  6  ins.  apart  and  care  should  be  taken  to  con- 


4 


I 


a6 


MILL    BUILDING    CONSTRUCTIOK. 


nect  them  always  to  the  tops  of  the  corrugations,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
25.    The  following  table  shows  the  size  of  clinch  nails  to  be  used 


Fig.  26.    Clinch  Nail  Fastening  for  Corrugated  Iron  Roofing. 

with  different  sizes  of  angle  purlins  and  also  the  number  of  nails 
to  the  pound  in  each  instance : 

Purlin    angle 2  x  2  Ins.    2V,x3ina.    SMjxavilns.    4x4>/.lns 

Length  of  nail 4  Ins.  5  Ina.  «  <ns.  7  ins. 

No.  of  nails  per  lb.  .48  38  „„  27 

Corrugated  iron  of  No.  27  and  No.  28  gage  is  too  thin  to  sup- 
port any  weight  above  and  must  be  laid  over  sheathing.  For  other 
gages  the  purlin  spacing  should  be  as  follows : 


Thickness,  Spacing  c.  to  c, 

B.  W.  G.  ft.        Ins. 

No.  2ti 2  0 

"24 2  R 

"  -'2 3  0 


Thickness, 
B.  W.  G. 

•N'o.  20 

•'  18 

■•  K! 


Spacing  c.  to  c, 

ft.        Ins. 
...4  0 

,..   5  0 

...  «  0 


The  advantage  of  galvanized  over  black  corrugated  iron  is  that 
it  requires  painting  less  frequently.  Galvanized  corrugated  iron 
seldom  needs  to  be  painted  within  five  or  six  years  after  erection. 
When  painting  becomes  desirable,  it  is  always  necessary  to  remove 
the  zinc  by  applying  with  a  brush  the  following  wash :  Chloride  of 
copper,  one  part :  nitrate  of  copper,  one  part ;  and  sa'ammoniac,  one 
part,  dissolved  in  64  parts  of  water,  with  one  par;  hydrochloric  acid 
added  to  the  solution.  This  solution  will  burn  the  metal  black- 
ready  to  receive  paint  in  about  24  hours.  Black  corrugated  iron 
should  be  painted  upon  leaving  the  shop  and  about  every  two  years 
thereafter. 

Corrugated  iron  is  not  recommended  for  roofs  having  a  slope  of 
less  than  3  ins.  in  12  ins.,  and  if  it  is  used  for  flatter  roofs  all  the 
jointF  .should  be  laid  in  elastic  cement.  Cement  joints  can  be  used  to 
advantage  for  roofs  of  any  pitch  since  they  ensure  a  much  tighter 


ROOF     COVERINGS. 


27 


covering.  When  corrugated  iron  is  used  for  siding  where  it  is  lia- 
ble to  receive  shocks,  a  heavy  gage  should  be  employed.  The  sid- 
ing should  not  touch  the  ground  as  contact  with  the  earth  hastens 
its  corrosion. 

SHEET  STEEL  ROOFING.— Sheet  steel  is  a  cheap  roof  cover- 
ing; it  is  light  and  water  tight  and  as  it  comes  in  large  sheets  it  can 
be  rapidly  applied ;  it  is  suitable  for  roofs  of  any  pitch,  is  lightning 
proof  and  has  a  low  insurance  rate.  Sheet  copper,  sheet  lead  and 
sheet  zinc  have  been  used  for  roofing  in  special  cases,  but  they  are 
much  more  expensive  than  sheet  steel. 

Sheet  steel  roofing  is  annealed  Bessemer  steel  of  the  best  qual- 
ify ;  a  sample  piece  may  be  hammered  into  all  kinds  of  shapes  with- 
out cracking.  Sheet  iron  is  unsuitable  for  roofing  since  it  is  liable 
to  break  when  bent  and  hammered  to  a  flat  joint.  Sheet  steel  roof- 
ing should  not  be  laid  over  tar  paper  or  on  wood  containing  acids, 
and  it  should  have  a  coat  of  paint  on  top.  Steel  roofing  sheets  are 
made  96x28  ins.  in  size  and  will  cover  an  area  93^x24  ins.  Tney 
must  be  laid  over  lath  or  sheathing,  and  if  warm  air  comes  into  con- 
tact with  the  undersides  of  the  sheets  they  should  be  protected  by 
an  anti-condensation  lining  of  the  construction  used  for  corrugated 
iron  roofing  previously  described,  or  by  a  lining  of  asbestos  paper. 

The  weight  of  sheet  steel  roofing  of  the  construction  just  de- 
scribed is  about  80  lbs.  per  10x10  ft.  square.  At  present  prices  the 
cost  per  square  of  No.  27  B.  \V.  G.  sheet  steel  painted  red  is  $3.50, 
and  of  galvanized  sheet  steel  is  $5.90.  These  prices  are  for  small 
lots ;  for  car  load  lots  the  cost  will  be  about  10;^  less.  Graphite 
paint  costs  25  cts.  more  per  square  than  iron  oxide  paint.  Table 
VIII.  shows  the  weight  per  square  foot  of  painted  and  galvanized 
steel  roofing  sheets  of  different  gages.  Roughly  speaking,  galvan- 
ized sheets  weigh  about  20  lbs.  per  10x10  ft.  square  more  than  black 
or  painted  sheets. 


TABLE  VIII. — Showing  Weight  in  Lb3.   per  Square  Foci  of  Steel  Roofing  Sheets 


of  Different  Gages. 


Gage.  27  2ti  24 

B.   \V.   G Black     lU  .72       .SS 

B.  W.  G Galvanized..     .88      .94  1.00 

V.  S.  standard.  Blaclf     (>8  ."."i  1.0 

U.  S.  Standard,   Galvanized    .  .    .84      .'JO  l.ic 


Gage. 

Oi) 

1T2 
1.31 
1.2.-) 
-  41 


20 
1.40 
1.7.% 

l.«« 


18 

lit" 

2.0<i 

2.00 

2.1i} 


2.(i0 
2.<«) 
2.50 
2.00 


CRIMPED  ROOFING.— Crimped  roofing  is  laid  directly  on 
wood  rafters  or  over  sheathing,  the  latter  construction  being  pref- 
erable, and  is  probably  the  least  expensive  metal  roof  covering 


38 


MILL     BUILDING     COXSTnUCTIOV. 


available.  It  sliotild  have  a  pitdi  of  at  least  2  ins.  to  the  foot. 
Crimped  roofing  weifrli.s  33  lbs.  per  10x10  ft.  .sciuare  painted,  and 
Its  present  cost  for  Xo.  27  W.  W  ->  $3.10  per  stpiare  painted  and 

?5.50  per  scpiare  palvanizcd.  I'o.  uir  load  lots  lo'/  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  above  prices. 

STEEL  ROLL  ROOFIXC-Steel  roll  roof^nj?  differs  from 
steel  sh.-et  roofing  by  having  the  sheets  of  8  ft.  and  10  ft.  length 
jomcd  at  the  factory  into  a  continuous  piece  some  50  ft.  long  As 
the  side  joints  nuist  be  made  after  the  material  is  laid  out  on  the 
roof  this  roofing  is  more  suitable  to  roofs  of  small  pitch,  say  i  in 
to  the  foot,  than  to  steeper  roofs.  Steel  roll  roofing  is  easily  han- 
dled and  the  cost  of-shipping  is  less  than  in  the  case  of  steel'sheets 
which  have  to  be  boxed.  Parrafintd  felt  packing  should  be  in- 
serted  in  the  joints.  If  desired  the  manufacturers  will  make  stee! 
roll  roofing  in  any  length  retjuired  up  to  150  ft.  to  sui'  the  length 
of  roof  to  be  covered.  This  roofing  weighs  about  85  fts.  per  10x10 
ft.  square  and  in  sheets  of  Xo.  27  R.  W.  G.  it  costs  $3.30  per  square 
pa-ntcd.  and  $5.90  per  s(|uare  galvanized.  Steel  roll  roofing  re- 
quires no  ridge  capping  since  the  strips  or  rolls  are  continuous  over 
the  ridge.  Generally  the  manufacturers  of  an>  kind  of  steel  roof- 
ing having  folded  joints  provide  special  tools  for  laving  it. 

TIX  AXD  TERXE  PLATE  ROOFIXG.-Tin  and  tame 
plate  riofing  are  generally  used  only  for  flat  roofs  or  roofs  with  a 
small  pitch.  The  plates  come  in  i4x2o-in.  and  ^Sx2o-in.  sizes  and 
well  laid  plates  of  good  quality  should  last  30  vcars.  It  is  very  im- 
portant to  the  life  of  the  covering  that  its  joints  .should  be  well  sol- 
dered and  that  there  should  be  no  travel  on  the  roof.  Tin  and  tcrne 
plates  may  be  laid  on  sheathing  or  over  old  shingles.  If  the  roof 
is  quite  flat  all  joints  should  be  soldered,  but  when  laid  on  sloping 
roofs  the  side  joints  may  be  folde.l  aiul  the  cross  or  horizontal 
joints  soldered.  Some  roofers  lock  all  joints  and  fill  the  horizontal 
seams  with  lead.  The  sheets  are  fastened  to  the  roof  bv  cleats; 
if  the  side  joints  are  soldered  the  cleats  should  be  soldered  in  the 
joints.  For  sloping  roofs  it  is  often  convenient  to  have  a  number 
of  sheets  jointed  in  the  shop  into  strips  of  the  right  length  to  reach 
from  the  eaves  to  the  ridge.  After  laying  the  plates  should  be 
nnsntc.-]  xvith  two  contf,  of  paint  and  they  slunild  be  repainted  about 
every  two  years  afterward.  To  reduce  the  noise,  tin  or  terne  sheet 
roofing  may  be  laid  a  lining  of  tar  paper. 
The  old  method  of  preparing  tin  or  terne  plates  was  to  immerse 


ROOF     C0VERIN03. 


29 


tlie  sheet  of  ir  n  or  steel  in  a  bath  of  tin  or  lead,  a  coatinp  of  which 
adhered  to  the  plates  when  they  were  removed.  The  nodern 
method  o.  manufacture  is  to  pass  the  sheets  between  rolls  which 
are  immersed  in  a  batti  of  tin  or  lead,  and  thus  by  adjusting  the  rolls 
to  secure  a  coating  as  thin  or  as  thick  as  may  be  djsired.  The  cost 
of  the  finished  plate  depends  largely  upon  the  thickness  of  the  coat- 
ing. Plates  coated  with  lead  are  called  ternes  and  are  somewhat 
cheaper  and  less  durable  than  tin  plates.  Terne  plates  are  more 
generally  used  for  roofing  than  tin  plates.  The  best  plates  are 
made  from  charcoal  iron,  but  Hessenier  steel  is  also  used.  The 
thickness  of  sheets  commonly  employed  are  known  as  I  C  and  I  X, 
and  correspond  to  No.  30  and  Xo.  28  B.  W .  G.,  respectively. 

MET.\L  SHINGLE  ROOFING.— Metal  shingles  are  made 
either  of  tin  or  terne  plate  or  of  sheet  steel  painted.  They  possess 
the  regular  advantages  of  metal  roofing,  being  fire  and  lightning 
proof,  of  light  weight  and  not  being  easily  cracked  or  detached. 
Like  shingles  of  any  kind  they  cannot  be  laid  on  fiat  roofs.  They 
are  manufactured  in  a  great  variety  of  sizes  and  forms  to  fit  differ- 
ent kinds  of  sloping  roof,  are  durable  and  present  a  fine  appearance. 
Metal  shingle  roofing  weighs  from  90  fts.  to  no  lbs.  per  10x10  ft. 
square. 

RUBBER  ROOFING. — Rubber  roofing  is  made  of  felt  paper 
soaked  in  a  preparation  of  rubber  and  then  rolled.  It  is  put  up  in 
rolls  32  ins.  wide  and  is  laid  lengthwise  of  the  roof  and  fastened 
either  with  strips  running  up  and  down  the  roof  about  2  ft.  apart 
or  with  nails  and  tin  washers.  After  being  laid  the  roofing  is  coated 
with  two  coats  of  slate  paint,  the  upper  coat  of  which  is  sanded. 
Rubl)er  roofing  is  very  cheap  and  is  especially  suitable  for  tempo- 
rary roofs  or  for  sheds  where  an  expensive  covering  is  not  required. 
When  painted  it  does  not  take  fire  easily,  and  it  can  be  laid  on  roofs 
having  a  pitch  as  flat  as  2  ins.  to  the  foot.  It  does  not  make  a  hot 
upper  story  as  some  other  coverings  do.  The  slate  paint  does  not 
contain  tar  and  so  will  not  crack  or  peel  off,  and  it  is  very  elastic. 
The  color  is  chocolate  brown.  As  usually  laid  the  layers  are  lapped 
about  2  ins.  The  cost  of  rubber  roofing  complete  as  described,  in- 
cluding nails,  painting  and  sanding,  runs  from  about  $2.50  to  $3.75 
per  10x10  ft.  square,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  felt  paper 
used. 

ASBESTOS  ROOFING. — Asbestos  roofing  is  made  of  canvass 
coated  on  both  sides  with  a  water-proof  composition  and  lined  on 
the  bottom  with  Manilla  paper  and  on  the  top  with  asbestos  felt.  It 


|§  MILL    BUILDING     CONBTRbOTION. 

is  laid  in  horizontal  courses  and  fastened  with  nails  and  tin  washers, 
and  afterwards  it  is  coated  with  asbestos  paint.  Asbestos  roofing 
weights  complete  as  described  about  85  lbs.  per  10x10  ft.  square 
and  costs  about  $4.50  per  square.  The  covering  re  ,uires  occasional 
repainting,  the  paint  costing  from  40  cts.  to  50  cts.  per  gallon  and 
one  gallon  covering  about  100  .scj.  ft.  Asbestos  cement  for  stop- 
ping leaks  and  calking  around  chimneys  costs  from  5  cts.  to  10 
cts.  per  pound.  Asbestos  building  felt  in  rolls  36  ins.  wide  weigh- 
ing about  70  lbs.  per  roll  costs  about  12  cts.  per  pound.  This  papci- 
runs  6  lbs.,  10  lbs.,  and  14  lbs.  in  weight  for  thin  medium  and  thick 
paper,  respectively.  Another  paper  made  from  long  libered  asbes- 
tos costs  about  15  cts.  per  pound. 

WOOD  SHIXGLE  ROOFING.— According  to  Kidder's  "Ar- 
chitects' Pocket  book": 

"The  average  width  of  a  shingle  is  4  ins.  Hence  when  shingles 
are  laid  4  ins.  to  the  weather,  each  shingle  averages  16  sq.  ins.,  and 
900  will  cover  a  square.  If  laid  4J  ins.  to  the  weather,  800  will  cover 
a  square ;  if  laid  5  ins.  to  the  weather,  650  will  cover  a  square ;  and  if 
laid  6  ins.  to  the  weather,  600  will  cover  a  square.  This  is  for  com- 
mon gable  roofs.  In  hip  roofs  where  the  shingles  are  cut  more  or 
less  to  fit  the  roof,  add  5^.  A  carpenter  w'll  carry  up  and  lay  on  the 
roof  from  1,500  to  2,000  per  day,  or  two  and  a  half  squares  of  plain 
roofing;  1,000  shing'.cs  laid  4  ins.  to  the  weather  will  require  5  lbs. 
of  shingle  nails." 

When  cost  will  permit  and  the  roof  is  not  steep  shingles  should 
Lt  laid  in  J-in.  of  mortar,  as  the  lim.e  prevents  decay.  The  life  of 
shingles  is  greatly  increased  if  they  are  dipped  in  paint  before  being 
laid. 

COMPARATIVE  COST. — The  comparative  approximate  cost 
per  square  of  loxio  ft.  of  the  several  kinds  of  roof  covering  which 
have  been  described  is  given  by  Table  IX. 

TABLE  IX. — Giving  Comparative  Approximate    Coet  per  10  x  10  ft.   Square  of 
Ditfereot  Roof  Coverings. 

Slate  on  Iron  purlins $2.fK)  to  J7.00  per  sq. 

Metal  tile,  tin   8.50  "    9.75 

"        "      steel,   lead-coated    10.75  "1,3.75        " 

Rubber  roofing 2.00  "    3.75 

Felt   and    gravel ♦L.^O  " 

Ornamental  tile 40.(K>  "  fiO.OO  per  M. 

Tile  shingles 21.00  "  35.00      " 

Charcoal  tin  plates,  I.e.,  14x20  Ins 0.00"    0.50  per  box  of  112. 

I.e.,  20x28"   12.00  "  l.TOO 

I.X.,  14x20"   7..T0  "    S..-K) 

IX,  20^2.'«"   i5nrt"i7.(X) 

Coke  plates,  tin,  I.C,  14  x  20  Ins n.-V) 

I.e.,  20x28" 11. ,50  "12.00 

I.X.,  14x20"   7.50 

Charcoal  plate,  terne.  I.e.,  14x20  Ins..  . .   5.50 

"       I.e.,  20  x2,S  "  ....10.75  "11.00 

"      I.X.,  14x20  " fi.40 

"      I.X..  20x28  " 12.80 


SII8CELLANE0VB    STRUCTURAL    DETAILS. 


3» 


■.nrii 


F;g.  -M. 


Fig.  30. 


MISCELLANEOUS  STRUCTURAL  DETAILS. 

WALL  ANCHORAGES  OF  ROOF  TRUSSES.— There  are 
several  methods  of  anchoring  roof  trusses  to  the  side  walls  of  build- 
ings.   Fig.  26  shows  the  standard  anchorage  in  which  the  lower 
chord  of  the  truss  is  connected  by  boltr.  to  the  projecting  end  of  a 
plate  built  into  the  wall  masonry.    Fig.  27  shows  an  anchorage  con- 
sisting  of   bolts   set 
into  the  wall  and  at- 
tached to  a  washer 
plate    at    their    bot- 
toms.   Fig.  28  shows 
a  similar  anchorage 
with    the    washer 
plate  omitted  and 
the  bolts  held  in  the 
masonry  by  cement. 
Fig.     29     shows     a 
method  of  attaching 
the  truss  to  the  side 
of     the     wall.       As 
shown  by  the  draw- 
ing, the  anchor  bolts 
pass  through  the  wall 
against    the    outside 
of  which  their  heads 
secure  a  bearing  by 
means   of  a   washer 
plate.     The  area   of 
this  washer  plate  in 
square  inches  shouM 
equal  eight  times  tlie 
tension  on  the  bo;:> 
in  tons.     It  is  important  also  that  the  end  of  the  truss  should  fit 
tight  to  the  wall,  shims  being  used  if  necessary  to  ensure  such  a 
fit.     The  following  table  shows  the  diameter  of  bolt  to  be  used  for 
walls  of  different  thicknesses ;  the  washer  plate  area  in  square 
inches  to  be  allowed  for  each  bolt,  and  the  holding  value  of  the 
bolt  in  tons: 


% 


iU'>^\^ 


^ 


Fig.  31. 


■IRovqhBolfs 
stt  in  Ctmtnf 


I'm 


Fig.  28. 
Figs.  26  to  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Typical  Wall  Anchorages  for  Roof 
Trusses. 


Dlam., 

S-lQ.  wall, 

12 

-iii.  wan. 

IC-In.  wall, 

20-tn.  wan, 

Area  or  plate 

in>. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

tons. 

sq.  Ids. 

§:::; 

0.5 

0.7 

• . . 

18 

O.fi 

0.9 

1.0 

. . . 

26 

%•  • 

0.7 

1.05 

1.4 

. . . 

36 

1 

08 

1.2 

1.0 

1.77 

46 

i 


32 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


Wlicn  it  is  inexpedient  to  pass  tiie  anchor  holts  throiifjli  he  wall, 
as  shown  hy  h'v^.-  jy.  the  anchorafje  is  accomplished  hy  inserting  ex- 
pansion holts  into  the  wall.  The  following  taljle  shows  the  holding 
power  of  expansion  holts  of  different  sizes: 


Diam., 

ins. 


I Hfildins  power  in  loiia  tor  Irngrha  of- 

i   ins.  C,  ins.  ,S   ins.  •   .■  ■■ 

<i.l'4  0.;!ii  (l.4i;  ;■  .-.- 

f>.JS  0.42  (l.nc.  tt.Tn 

(•.47  o.r,.-i  (i.sj 

<)..")-  it.ir,  (i.iK! 


!•_'  ins. 
1.1:.' 


Fig.  30  shows  the  end  of  the  truss  l)u.':.  1  :.j>  *';..■  v;all,  the  angle 
clips  serving  as  anchors.  Fig.  31  shows  the  method  of  anchoring  a 
beam  bf.ilt  into  the  wall:  the  length  of  the  rod    should   equal   the 

width  (jf  the  beam  flange  plus 
6  ins.  I'ig.  32  shows  the  man- 
ner of  nnchnriTig  chnnnc!  heatii 
wall  struts.  The  anchor  holts 
shotdd  he  spaced  about  3  ft. 
apart.  If  the  struts  are  to  be 
anchored  to  a  wall  already 
built  the  holts  should  be  run 
through  the  wall  with  washers 
on  the  outside,  or  expansion 
bolts  may  be  used. 

DOORS  AXD  WIXDOWS. 

— Xarrow  doors  may  he  made 

without  center  styles  and  wide 

doors  should  have  two  or  more 

spaced    from    3    ft.    to    6    ft. 

apart.      The    rails    and    styles 

should  be  halved  together,  and 

they    and    the    diagonals    also 

should  have   a   J-in.  chamfer; 

the  sheathings  should  be  screwed  on.     Fig.  33  shows  a  door  of  the 

construction  described.  Tables  X.  and  XI.  give  the  proper  sizes  of 

material  and  hardware  for  doors  of  different  sizes. 


Fig.  33.    Construction  for  Narrow 
Doors. 


TABLE  X.— Showing  Proper  Sizes  of  Material  for  Doors  up  to  14x20  ft.  In  Size. 


Size    of    Doors.  Styles. 

Id  ft.  Ins. 

5  X  S  or  less -ix  W* 

5  X  8  to  7  X  S 7xlW 

7  X  8  to  10  X  10 7xl(<. 

10  x  10  to  14  X  14.  ..8x2  " 
14  X  14  to  14  X  20.  .0x2% 


1   ■■'■     ■ 
Top. 

Center. 

Bottom. 

Diags. 

Sheath 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

4x114 

4x114 

(ixn4 

4xlV4 

4x% 

7x114 

♦i  X  114 

8XIV4 

4X1H 

4x% 

7x11^ 

tixlVi 

SxlH 

4xlV. 

4x% 

9x2 

8x2 

10x2 

5x2 

4x% 

9x2Mi 

8  X  21,^ 

10  X  2Vj 

5  X  2Vi 

4x% 

HS 


MISCELLANEOUS  STRUCTURAL  DETAILS. 


33 


^~" 

w 

1 

— 

'*•■ 

.r> 

i, 

^J% 

^ 

i 

r,r- 


^li'tij'Bncilhtlnrytr 
OmlHd  ir  Chmf<nUi 


Figs.  34  and  35. 


Corn  Iron— 


C/mJ 


cz* 


czs 


■to* 


□s 


iti 


-Bfcrt 


Bbc/r 


sp 


. 


^; 


ID 


^ 


^flKl 


Fig,  36. 


Figs.  34  to  36.    Details  for  Side  Window  in  Brick  and  Iron  Frame   Walls. 


mmmmm 


B'S"" 


34 


MILL     BUILDLN'G     CONSTRUCTION. 


TABLE  XI.— Showing  Dimensions  of  Hinges  and  Appurtenances   for 

Uifterent    Sizes. 
Stanley  Work-  Heavy  Hinges. 

I Plain 1  Caivanized.— I 

Strap.         T.  Strap.  T. 

Ins.  Ins.  Ins.  Ins. 

10  10  10  10 

1<>  li>  H>  lii       .,i 

24-ia.  strap  hinge Vi-ln.  lag  screws 

JO-ln.      "         "      

30-in.      "         "     


Size  of  doors. 

Ft. 
."  X  f>  or  less.  . 
!!  X  t!  to  a  X  M.. 
3  X  S  to  4  X  10. 
»  X  10  to  ox  12. 
Over  5  X  12. .  . 


I — Screws. — | 
Uoor.  Jamb. 
Ins.        Ins. 

i:!4       - 


Doors    of 


Holts. 
Ins. 


Mi 


Fig.  34  sliows  tilt  details  for  a  side  window  in  a  bricl<  wall.  Us- 
ing ioxi2-in.  glass,  these  windows  are  usually  made  with  from  24 
to  40  lights  or  panes.  The  sizes  of  wall  openings  required  for  win- 
dows with  from  24  to  40  ioxi2-in.  lights,  are  as  follows: 


No.  of  lights. 

24 

2.S 

;i2 

40 


Size  of  opening. 
.4  X  7  ft. 
.4x8  ft.  1  in. 
.4x!tft.  1  in. 
.4  ft.  10  ins.  xOft.  1  in. 


Louvi^s 


Rcund 
Ven+llcTtt)rs 


Fig.  37. 


'0     40 

-1O 

%      •>; 

1,.', 

RoLnd  venir. 

i\       .-. 

4 

Louvre  vent^. 

8       7 

»; 

L-.uvre  or  open  vents. 

FiRs.  35  and  36  shows  details  of  window  construction  in  the  side 
wall  of  an  iron  frame  building  covered  with  corrugated  iron. 

VENTILATORS. — Ridge  ventilators  may 
be  in  the  form  of  a  luonitor  roof  or  they  mav  -^¥>.  --^^~^ 
be  round  ventilators  placed  at  intervals  (Fig.  ' 
^/).  The  area  of  ventilators  required  i)er  100 
sq.  ft.  of  floor  surface  for  shop  buildings  of 
various  kinds  is  given  in  square  feet  by  the 
following  table : 

Height,  in  ft.,  above  gioiir.d.  20 

Machine  shr^p,   sq.    ft % 

.Mills,   sq.    ft 7 

Forge   shop,    sq.    ft f> 

The  areas  given  in  this  table  are  net  areas  and  when  louvres  are 
used  6o;if  should  be  added  to  allow  for  the  obstruction  of  the  open- 
ing by  the  slats.  The  areas  in  square  feet  of  round  ventilators  of 
different  diameter  are  as  follows : 

Diameter,    ins 12      IcS      24      3(3      38       42       48 

Area,    sq.    ft 0.8     1.8     3.1     4.0     7.1     ll.li     12.0 

Details  of  a  monitor  roof  ventilator  with  louvres  are  shown  by 
Fig.  38.  Fig.  3Q  shows  details  of  a  monitor  roof  ventilator  with 
hinged  flat  iron  shutters.  These  details  are  for  a  shutter  8  ft.  long. 
Ordinarily,  shutters  should  be  made  6,  7,  8,  9  or  10  ft.  long,  but  in- 
termediate lengths  may  be  used  if  necessary.  The  width  of  the  shut- 
ters should  be  the  same  for  all  lengths.  The  shutters  may  be  either 


mi3'::el.laneous  structurau  dbtails. 


35 


kr-'K 4k' 


i—LeurreBIXK 


Bolt  with  LtwneyJ^y^/'rshin^     Sash 
Fig.  38.    Monitor  Roof  Ventilator  with  Louvres. 


Flashing'-- 


K'  -gr  - 

-l'>L,}i?ii'     8"^  ?       This  Hole  h.  Wtd 


Cabk       over  O'O'lmj 
Finish 

~-rio'~ 


This  Dcrrtensian  tvbf  din. 
Ifis  them  Len^h  sf  5huttcr 


.ji^ 


^^^T^ 


h  Laying  o/tiinH-    \ 
"  lalm  locirtt     S^a 
•Purlins  in  f)vper  NT* 
_  s/ton  to  Fit  Bnel      \^ 
of  Standard  Vmtilation     J 
flashing,  / 

SlKith  for  Con- har  list 
6iyr  Dimension  li  \,itf. 


/y^im-L,yri^r 


I  Steel  Spring 


i 


§"Tie-8eirm  Hook 


Fig.  39.    Monitor  Roof  Ventilators  with  Hinged  Flat  Iron  Shutters. 


!r  I 


.  J-Jl  I  ,  i  UM. 


36 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


Kig.  40.    Montior  Roof  Ventilator  with   Fixed   Sash. 


Fig.  41.    IVIonitor  Roof  Ventilator  with  Movable  Sash. 


')^m 


MILL     BUILDING     CONSTRUCTION. 


37 


Fig,  42. 


y-d'Spiking  Piecf 


^— aiM,;iiiMTTTTm— ^'T  -!■— '— 


Fig,  43. 
Figa.  42  and  43.    Monitor  Roof  Ventilators  with  All-Wood  Framiig. 


38 


MILL     BUn  DINQ     CONSTRUCT  ON. 


Detail  of 
Lap  Joirrt-. 


Detail  of 
Lock  Joint. 


Detoil  of 
Copped  Joint. 


Method    for  Faatning 
Ends  of   Wira. 


Fig.  44.    Monitor  Roof  Skylight  of  Translucent  Fabric. 


[ctjn  of  Sheets  Rm-fetl 
together  here^ 


Zlayers  Tar  fbpcr     \     ..-Corruqatett Inn 


Oetail 


!  dLayenTarfinxr 


Net  Lei    \^i  xpil' 
of   Single  6irtt«r  Next  Wall. 


Specimen     Drawing     of 
Gutter     Angles. 


Detail  of   Doobte  or  \bll«y   Gutter. 

Fig.  45.    Single  and  Double  Gutters 


Detail    of  Gutter 
Yvi*    C,    Purlins. 


MILL     BUtLDlNQ     CONSTRUCTION. 


39 


Hanging  Gutter 
fcrgsr"*   Patent  Adjustable  Hanger. 


For  Hanging  Sunrr3,Punch  ^' Holes 
in  B/rlin  to  fake  Honors. 
Out  fdjp  of  Oulter  must  net  Extend 
aboa  Boof  plant  prolonged. 


Hcmgti 


Hanging    ©utt-ers  "D-B." 
^justable   Strap   Hangsr. 


Details  cf  Box  Outt^r. 
Fig.  46.    Types  of  Fixed  and  Hanging  Gutters. 


40 


MILL.     DUILUING     CONSTUUCTION. 


of  !)lack  iron  or  palvanizd  iron.  If  galvanized  iron  is  used  all  cover- 
ing  and  flasliing  for  the  ventilator  roof,  sides  and  ends,  and  all  bolts, 
clips,  clinch  rivets  or  other  fa.steninf,'s,  any  part  of  which  shows  on 
the  outside  of  the  covering  or  finishing,',  should  also  be  galvanized. 
Fie  40  shows  a  monitor  roof  ventilator  with  fixed  sash  and  all 
.  on  framing,  ami  Fig.  41  shows  a  similar  construction  with  mov- 
able sash.  Figs.  42  and  43  show  monitor  roof  ventilators  with 
fixed  and  swing  sash,  rcspectivcl...  all  wood  framing.  Fig.  44 
shows  a  skylight  on  roof  of  monitor  made  of  translucent  fab- 
ric. It  should  be  noted  that  the  roofing  sheets  run  lengthwise  of 
the  building  and  are  6  ft.  3  ins.  x  3  ft.  3  ins.  in  size.  This  .size  of 
sheet  shouhl  be  used  whenever  possible,  although  sheets  may  be 
readily  cut  to  smaller  sizes.  The  widtii  of  the  lap  should  be  2' ins. 
and  both  edges  should  be  securely  fastened.  I'or  fastening  the  fab- 
ric wire  nails  il-in.  long,  or  3d  nails,  should  be  used;  the  amount 
required  being  i^  lbs.  per  loo  ft.  of  seam.  Lap  joints  or  lock  joints 
can  be  used  for  all  seams,  but  capped  joints  can  be  used  only  for 
seams  running  in  the  direction  of  the  roof  slope. 

GUTTERS  AND  DOWN  SPOUTS.-Thc  sizes  of  gutters  and 
down  spouts  and  their  distance  apart  for  roofs  with  \  pitch  and  of 
different  spans  are  shown  by  the  followii'g  table : 


Vj    root    span,    ft. 

Size  of  Kutter,  ins 

Size  of  down  spouts,   Ins.  .. 
Spacing  of  down  spouts,  ft. 


10 


liO  a<>  W  ,-)(»  m  70  8<) 

.  .   o      r>  1;  «  7  7  .S  8 

. .  ■■«     3  t  4  .-  r,  1;  «i 

.50    50  :A)  50  40  40  40  40 


The  slope  of  gutters  should  be  at  least  i  ft.  in  50  ft.  When  the 
length  of  the  roof  overruns  the  spacing  more  than  10  ft.  an  extra 
down  spout  should  be  put  on. 

Fig.  45  shows  details  of  single  and  double  gutters  with  both  an- 
gle and  channel  purlin  conncci.  ms,  and  Fig.  46  shows  diflferent 
forms  of  hanging  and  box  gutters.  Regarding  hanging  gutters  it 
may  be  noted  that  ordinarily  gutters  should  slope  i  in.  in  15  ft.  A 
6-in.  gutter  takes  a  4-in.  leader  and  will  drain  about  3,000  sq.  ft.  of 
horizontal  surface.  A  4-in.  gutter  will  take  a  3-in.  leader  and  will 
drain  about  1,700  sq.  ft.  of  horizontal  surface.  Hangers  for  hang- 
ing gutters  should  be  spaced  about  2  ft.  6  ins.  apart. 


